Drainage systems of India are broadly divided between Himalayan (Northern) & Peninsular (Downurn) based on origin & characteristics.

Drainage is broadly divided between Himalayan (Northern) & Peninsular (Downurn) based on origin & characteristics.

[Diagram showing Himalayan and Peninsular river systems with examples:

Himalayan: Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra

Peninsula: Narmada, Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna

Fig: Example of Himalayan & Peninsular rivers]

Differences between the two drainage systems:

Feature | Himalayan rivers | Peninsular rivers

1. origin - snow fed, glacial melt | rain fed

2. permanent - perennial | seasonal - sediment flow in dry seasons

3. Age - older | younger

3. Course - meandering, forms - straight & floodplains | fixed course

4. gorges - deep gorges & canyons common | less common

5. deltas - large deltas eg. Ganga & Brahmaputra | small deltas eg. Krishna

6. relatively smaller area | extensive basin

7. erosional activity - young & active V shaped valleys | mature, broad valleys, more depositional

8. tributaries - many perennial tributaries | fewer, seasonal tributaries

9. Example - Ganga, Indus, Satluj | Narmada, Mahanadi, Godavari

10. flooding - more prone to annual floodings | flash floods

11. navigation - high potential | restricted due to seasonal flow & sedimentation

Both Himalayan & peninsular river systems not only differ in their origin & evolution, but also hydrography, impact on human settlements.

Earth is made up of various types of rocks - formed via different geological processes over time.

These rocks can be classified into 3 major types, based on origin & formation. Together they form basis of rock cycle

fig: rock cycle

1. Igneous rocks:

significance - mineral composition - eg. feldspar, quartz, mica.

2. Sedimentary rocks - formed by dispersion, compaction & lithification of sediments.

3. Metamorphic rocks - formed from pre-existing rocks under high pressure & temperature.

The nature of rock influences soil formation (eg. black soil from basalt), control drainage pattern, affects landslide susceptibility & resource distribution eg. metallic ones (igneous) & hydrocarbons (sedimentary).

How modern lifestyles are alienated from nature:

1. Overconsumption - has replaced minimalist, harmonious & sustainable way of living.

2. Isolation - because of digital & screen-based living has reduced physical connection to nature.

3. High ecological footprint (per capita emissions) & loss of traditional indigenous knowledge undervalued or lost.

Environmental crisis linked to alienation:

1. Air pollution - sky rocketing AQI figures because of vehicular omuse, construction in urban spaces.

2. water stress - overextraction of groundwater for agricultural & industrial purposes to gain.

3. environmental degradation & loss of biodiversity - fueled because of little to no importance for forms of lives other than humans. eg. wildlife trade, poaching, destruction of habitats.

4. climate vulnerability - seeing frequency & intensity of urban heat islands, marine heatwaves & GEDPs.

5. wetland encroachment in cities (Bengaluru, Chennai) fueling urban floods.

Reversing alienation:

1. mainstreaming LIFE mission to return to mindful consumption.

2. Nature based solutions, circular economy (reducing waste) & organic and natural farming.

3. Implementing COP-play - incentivising sustainable behaviour at individual & community levels eg. scaling, private transportation & meat consumption.

Behavioural nudges & use of technology (influencers) can help restore balance between growth & guardianship of planet.

Urbanisation of poverty sufus to the increasing concentration of poverty in urban areas, either due to migration or growing informalisation.

Urbanisation of poverty:

is as per World Bank & UN-Habitat, urban poverty is growing faster than urban population lately

Differences between urban & rural poverty:

1. manifestation - Urban poverty largely 'monetary' ie. lack of cash to afford necessities. While rural - is multidimensional - lack of assets, education, agrarian distress etc.

2. shelter - Urban - housing poverty, poor quality housing, slums. Rural - often own land/houses - even if poor quality.

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3. social dimension - Urban - low cost housing, poor quality housing, slums. Rural - often own land/houses - even if poor quality.

Urbanisation of poverty is as per World Bank & UN-Habitat, urban poverty is growing faster than urban population lately.